The Importance of Salmon: The Fraser River

Each year, millions of salmon surge through the rivers of the Pacific Northwest, transforming quiet waterways into moving ribbons of life that connect mountains to the sea. More than a spectacle of migration, this return is a profound ecological and cultural event that links ocean and freshwater ecosystems through the salmon’s intricate life cycles. The Pacific Northwest is home to five primary species of Pacific salmon: Chinook, Coho, Sockeye, Chum, and Pink, and each species contributes in its own way to sustaining the delicate balance of the ecosystems, embodying both the resilience of nature and the deep interdependence of all living systems.

This article will explore the life cycle of salmon as a keystone species, examining how their migrations shape ecosystems, support countless other species, and drive ongoing conservation and management efforts along rivers such as the Fraser.

Photo: Fengkai Liu

The Life Cycle of a Keystone Species

Salmon are anadromous fish, meaning they hatch in freshwater streams, migrate to the ocean to mature, and eventually return, often to the exact place of their birth, to spawn. After hatching, salmon fry spend varying amounts of time in freshwater, depending on the species, before undertaking a perilous migration to the ocean where they grow for one to five years. Upon reaching maturity, salmon begin an extraordinary upstream journey against strong currents and obstacles, guided by a remarkable homing instinct, marking the final stage of their life cycle. This cyclical migration sustains not only future generations of salmon but also countless other species and entire ecosystems across the Pacific Northwest.

[1] 

Salmon occupy a central position in the ecological networks of the Pacific Northwest, serving as a crucial link between marine, freshwater, and terrestrial environments. Their annual migrations transport vast amounts of marine-derived nutrients from the ocean to inland ecosystems, enriching rivers, forests, and floodplains far from the coast. In fact, when salmon die after spawning, their decomposing bodies release nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon that fertilize aquatic plants and riparian vegetation, supporting the growth of algae, mosses, and trees.

Scientists have recorded at least 137 species of mammals, birds, and fish that depend directly or indirectly on salmon for sustenance, including bears, wolves, eagles, and otters, which feed on their carcasses and distribute remains throughout the forest.[2]

Bears rely heavily on salmon during the summer and fall to accumulate the fat reserves necessary for hibernation, and in doing so, they transport nutrients from the rivers deep into surrounding forests. Scavengers such as wolves, eagles, and otters also feed on salmon, redistributing remains and enriching both terrestrial and aquatic habitats. In the marine environment, the endangered Southern Resident orca whales are particularly dependent on salmon, with declines in the runs directly impacting their health, reproduction, and survival. Through these pathways, salmon act as ecosystem engineers, linking oceanic productivity with inland food webs and shaping the structure, diversity, and resilience of Pacific Northwest ecosystems.

Photo: Greg Johnson

Salmon People

Beyond their ecological function, salmon hold deep cultural and spiritual significance for Indigenous communities throughout the Pacific Northwest. Traditional knowledge systems recognize salmon as relatives rather than resources, emphasizing reciprocity and stewardship as essential to sustaining both the species and the ecosystems they nourish.

Indigenous fishing practices and management systems historically ensured the health of salmon populations while supporting community livelihoods, integrating sustainable harvest, seasonal sharing, and ceremonial respect for the fish. Even in the face of colonial disruption, Indigenous peoples have maintained and adapted these practices, demonstrating resilience in protecting both their cultural heritage and the ecological integrity of salmon-bearing waters.

Photo: Kimberley Megis August 2025. Lillooet, on the Fraser River

The Fraser River

The Fraser River, stretching more than 1,300 kilometres from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, sustains one of the most significant salmon ecosystems on Earth. In fact, the Fraser River Basin is the largest salmon-bearing watershed in British Columbia, draining an area almost the size of California. It supports all five species of Pacific salmon, each following its own distinct timing and migratory routes. Among them, the Sockeye runs of the Fraser have long been celebrated for their abundance and for the deep cultural and ecological connections they embody, as every four years, millions of Sockeye return in what is known as a dominant run. Yet the Fraser’s salmon populations are increasingly vulnerable.

In the early 20th century, annual returns of sockeye salmon often exceeded 30 million fish, but in 2016, the Fraser River experienced the lowest sockeye return on record since data collection began, with an estimated 855,000 adults returning. Conversely, 2010 witnessed an extraordinary return of approximately 30 million sockeye salmon, the largest since 1913. These dramatic fluctuations illustrate the fragility of salmon populations in the face of environmental stressors.

Pacific Salmon Foundation: https://stateofsalmon.psf.ca/region/Fraser

Rising water temperatures caused by climate change have disrupted spawning success and increased mortality during migration, as salmon are highly sensitive to even small thermal changes. Habitat loss from urban expansion, forestry, and agriculture has degraded the river’s spawning grounds, while sedimentation and pollution have further reduced water quality. Industrial infrastructure (dams, culverts, and fish farms) has altered natural flow patterns and introduced disease and parasites that weaken already stressed populations. Overfishing and competition from hatchery-raised fish have compounded these threats, eroding the genetic diversity essential for long-term resilience. This decline signals not only an ecological crisis but also the unraveling of a relationship that has sustained both salmon and people along the Fraser for thousands of years.

The fragile balance between abundance and decline is at the heart of The Spirit Who Swims, a recent documentary by Bev Sellars and Garry Tutte that follows the salmon’s journey up the Fraser River. The film captures both the grandeur of the migration and the quiet grief of its disruption, weaving together voices from Indigenous communities who have lived beside these waters for millennia. In tracing the salmon’s path from sea to spawning grounds, The Spirit Who Swims reminds viewers that the health of the river is inseparable from the health of the people who depend on it.

Encouragingly, conservation partnerships between Indigenous Nations, scientists, and government agencies have begun to bear fruit, as habitat restoration, improved fish passage infrastructure, and better management of hatchery programs help support recovery. Some salmon runs have shown unexpectedly strong returns, with 2025 marking one of the largest numbers recorded in more than two decades. 

In conversation with a member of the Lil’wat Nation, he noted that this year had been one of the best in recent memory, celebrating 14 million large pink and 9 million sockeye runs in the river. These encouraging trends suggest that the ecosystem retains a remarkable capacity for resilience when given the chance to recover.

Yet, scientists warn that these gains are fragile and uneven: while certain Sockeye runs rebound, others remain well below historical levels.

Conservation Efforts and Collaborative Stewardship

In response to declining salmon populations, scientists and government agencies have implemented a range of conservation and habitat restoration initiatives. Programs include the removal of migration barriers such as dams, the restoration of riparian zones and spawning habitats, and the improvement of fish passage infrastructure to allow salmon to reach their natal streams more successfully. Hatcheries, such as Hoy Creek and Tenderfoot in British Columbia, release juvenile salmon into rivers to supplement natural populations, helping to maintain numbers and support both ecological and human communities that rely on these runs. Research efforts also monitor water quality, temperature, and stream flow, generating data that inform adaptive management strategies and guide long-term conservation planning.

Photo: Kimberley Megis, May 2025

The Squamish River Watershed Society, in partnership with the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO), organized the release of thousands of Coho salmon fry into the watershed, contributing to the restoration of local salmon populations and enhancing public awareness of aquatic ecosystem health.

Collaborative efforts with Indigenous Nations have been particularly effective in promoting sustainable salmon management. Indigenous communities contribute traditional ecological knowledge, which complements scientific approaches by emphasizing seasonal patterns, natural indicators, and species behavior honed over generations. Initiatives often combine habitat restoration, regulated harvesting, and education programs to maintain ecological balance while preserving cultural practices. Indigenous-led stewardship projects also focus on restoring salmon-bearing streams, removing barriers, and monitoring populations, ensuring that salmon runs remain viable for both wildlife and human communities.

Collaborative agreements, such as co-management frameworks between governments and Indigenous communities, ensure that conservation measures consider ecological sustainability alongside cultural and economic needs. These combined scientific, governmental, and Indigenous-led efforts reflect a growing recognition of the interconnectedness of salmon, the ecosystems they support, and the human communities that depend upon them.

Photo: Kimberley Megis, The Faser River

The story of the Fraser River’s salmon is not only one of ecological intricacy but also of enduring responsibility. These fish exemplify the delicate interplay between species, habitats, and human stewardship, reminding us that the health of rivers, forests, and oceans is inseparable from the choices made on land and water. Indigenous communities have long understood this interconnectedness, using traditional ecological knowledge to guide sustainable harvest practices, monitor salmon health, and maintain the ecological balance of salmon-bearing waters. Their insights, honed over generations, remain crucial for modern conservation efforts.

While targeted conservation efforts, scientific research, and habitat restoration have shown promising signs of recovery, the variability and unpredictability of salmon returns underscore the persistent pressures from climate, industrial development, and environmental disruption.

Ultimately, the survival and thriving of Fraser River salmon depend on respecting ecological limits, learning from traditional knowledge, and fostering collaboration across communities and institutions.

[1] Samantha M. Wilson and Stephanie J. Peacock. 2025. Freshwater life-cycle timing of Pacific salmon and steelhead (Oncorhynchus spp.) in Canada. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 82: 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2024-0213

[2] Cederholm, C. J., D. H. Johnson, R. E. Bilby, L.G. Dominguez, A. M. Garrett, W. H. Graeber, E. L. Greda, M. D. Kunze, B.G. Marcot, J. F. Palmisano, R. W. Plotnikoff, W. G. Pearcy, C. A. Simenstad, and P. C. Trotter. 2000. Pacific Salmon and Wildlife - Ecological Contexts, Relationships, and Implications for Management. Special Edition Technical Report, Prepared for D. H. Johnson and T. A. O’Neil (Managing directors), Wildlife-Habitat Relationships in Oregon and Wash- ington. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, Washington.

and https://www.biol.wwu.edu/hooper/Helfield%26Naiman2001Ecol_Salmon-derivedN%26ForestGrowth.pdf

About the Author

Kimberley has a M.Sc in International Studies (Cooperation, Development, Economics) from the University of Montreal. She is passionate about biodiversity and Indigenous peoples' land rights. Kimberley has been working with NGOs for the past couple of years as a writer, translator and researcher.